The Romans do not appear to have bore distinct individual ranks like modern militaries today that we know of, these seem to have been broken into categories of soldiers, lower-level command (such as the Decanus), higher-level command (such as the Centurion), and maximum level (Emperors, generals, etc.). As such, the lowest - and most numerable - level with in a Roman Legion would have been the individual Legionary. These were the front-line units and the backbone of the army, which we will get more into actual Roman Legion structure in a later article.
The exact uniformity of these men is still subject to debate, given the wide array of helmets, equipment, weapons, and armor styles seen in period artwork and recovered at Roman military sites throughout Europe and the Middle East. With this in mind, we do still have a pretty clear image of what comes to mind when we think of a Roman soldier, especially one in the 1st Century AD, and how he may have looked when in a formation preparing for battle. To begin, he wears a helmet to protect the head, this model being known as the Gallic F. Prior to Rome's conquest of Gaul, helmets would have been of a more Roman style, however, after the conquest, more Celtic and Gaulish styles were adopted, with the helmets being taken and tweaked to suit Roman military needs and thus the Gallic family of helmets were born. His tunic is of red wool and is gathered in the back of the neck via a knot. The exact colors of these tunics has also been subject for debate, as the stereotypical red "Legionary tunic" is likely more of a stereotype than something actually "required". We do know from surviving letters that many legionaries had their relatives ship them clothing from home, so it is likely tunics of nearly every color and weave were worn by soldiers and so long as it met the cultural standard of fitting correctly during this time, color was a non-issue by the command structure of a legion. Around his neck he also wears a simple woolen neck cloth, likely known as the 'Focale'. This would have prevented chafing from his armor and could have doubled as a sling or bandage in a pinch, or been soaked with water on a hot day to keep cool. Over his tunic he wears a wool and linen padded 'vest', known as the 'Subarmalis'. This is a conjectural garment as no surviving examples exist today outside of a few artistic depictions. As such, their actual construction is unknown to us and is purely hypothetical. The example worn here, though not visible, consists of three layers of linen layered with two thick layers of wool, all of which are then quilted together using heavy linen thread and the edges are bound using additional linen strips to prevent fraying from the armor. This example slips over the head and the sides tie closed via four pairs of leather ties. This would have not only helped support the weight of the armor and prevent it from digging into the wearer's torso when worn for long periods of time, but it would have also been an added layer of defense from attacks. Over the Subarmalis is the mail shirt, known as the 'Lorica Hamata'. While the Segmentata is synonymous with Roman Legionaries, the Hamata invariably saw far more use since its adoption by the Roman Republic. By the 1st Century AD, the Hamata was likely seen in use alongside the newer Segmentata and it is possible that in the early days line infantry and lower-ranking legionaries were equipped with the older Hamata while their better-trained or higher-ranking counterparts were equipped with Segmentata. The Lorica Hamata consists of a vest-like top made from riveted iron rings. It features a "cape" that drapes over the shoulders for additional protection and fastens at the breast with bronze hooks. The edges are trimmed in leather to protect the edges from damage, as well as to keep the edges of the shirt itself from damaging the wearer's skin and clothing underneath. Around his waist he wears the legionary's belt, the Cingulum. These appear to have varied greatly in style when looking at period artwork, however, for this example we went with the most commonly-depicted style. The body of the belt is made from sewn layers of linen and goat leather with the buckle off to one side. The body is wide and supports a number of bronze decorative plates riveted to it. On the side opposite the buckle are a pair of hangers which support the Pugio - a dagger adopted by the Romans from what appears to have been Iberian origins. Finally, the front is adorned with sewn leather straps which hang down and end is noise-making bronze terminals. The reasoning behind this "apron" is unknown, though it was likely simply decoration and personal preference, as many examples are seen in period works the lack this feature, as well. On his legs the Legionary wears a pair of diamond twill breeches, known as 'Braccae'. Another likely Celtic design, these appear in Roman artwork after the conquest of Gaul. They extend to just below the knee and would have proven beneficial to legionaries serving in colder climates during the Winter. The actual construction of Roman Braccae is unknown to us, however, by studying some original works, as well as surviving Germanic examples, it is likely these were constructed in a manner similar to the Germanic Marx-Etzel breeches, only longer to cover more of the leg. They are made in a golden-shade diamond twill wool. Another quintessential Roman item are worn on the feet - the Caligae. These boot/sandal hybrids proved highly effective on the Ancient battlefield, as they not only allowed breathing and wicking away moisture through their open cut-work design (thus preventing blisters and Ancient forms of trench foot), but the iron hobnails on the soles allowed for better traction and grippage when in battle allowing the Roman formations to better hold their positions against more slippery-soled shoes of other Ancient cultures. Finally, in regards to weapons, the Legionary is equipped with a Gladius sword. With is short, wide blade, this was ideal for thrusting into enemies from a fixed position behind a wall of shields. These were worn either suspended from a second belt, often worn crossed over the first, or from a baldric shoulder strap - the latter of which is seen here. He also carries a Pilum javelin. The long, thin iron neck of these allowed for them to bend when thrown and after penetrating enemy shields, thus rendering the shield (and possibly its carrier) useless or at least severely slowed down or damaged. This then allowed the Roman formation to descend on the unprotected enemy army, Gladius in hand, to finish the job. This model bears a socketed head which is attached to the wooden shaft in a more conventionally spear style. Though not as commonly found at Roman sites as their more popular tanged counterparts, these do appear to have seen some use in Roman legions from the Republican Period through to the 4th Century, though in what numbers or applications we do not know. Lastly, for the ultimate protection, he carries the Scutum - the shield. This heavy beast of a shield is a curved rectangle consisting of wood, leather, rawhide, and iron. It is painted on the front with the 14th Legion's insignia and would have been the workhorse of the Roman Legion on the battlefield. The presence of what have been possibly identified as leather shield covers meant to protect the shield and its painted designs when not in battle testify to the individual legionary's desire to protect his Scutum at all times. To not do do or properly maintain it would without a doubt be a direct matter of life and death on the battlefield. We are planning more in-detail looks at each of these individual items in the near future! Stay tuned on the site to see these as they roll out!
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Another good view of the well-to-do veteran Legionary in "off-duty" clothing.
Rome ; 1st Century AD. Photo by Sherri Burch. While the use of tunics bearing Clavii seems to have been associated more heavily with civilian use, there is some evidence of them being worn by Roman military personnel, as well, especially those in higher-ranking and well-to-do positions in the hierarchy.
Rome ; 1st Century AD. Photo by Sherri Burch. Another view of the combat positioning with the Scutum. Also seen is a very good angle of how the Pugio is mounted directly to the Cingulum via a pair of bronze rings.
Britannia ; 1st Century AD. Photo by Sherri Burch. Working on weight training with the Scutum and Gladius.
Britannia ; 1st Century AD. Photo by Sherri Burch. |
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